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The Academy's Evolution Site

The concept of biological evolution is among the most central concepts in biology. The Academies have been active for a long time in helping those interested in science comprehend the concept of evolution and how it permeates all areas of scientific research.

This site provides a range of tools for teachers, students, and general readers on evolution. It includes key video clips from NOVA and the WGBH-produced science programs on DVD.

Tree of Life

The Tree of Life, an ancient symbol, symbolizes the interconnectedness of all life. It is a symbol of love and unity across many cultures. It also has important practical applications, such as providing a framework for understanding the history of species and how they react to changes in environmental conditions.

The first attempts at depicting the world of biology focused on separating organisms into distinct categories which were identified by their physical and metabolic characteristics1. These methods, which rely on the sampling of different parts of living organisms or sequences of short DNA fragments, greatly increased the variety of organisms that could be represented in a tree of life2. These trees are largely composed of eukaryotes, while bacteria are largely underrepresented3,4.

Genetic techniques have greatly broadened our ability to represent the Tree of Life by circumventing the need for direct observation and experimentation. We can create trees using molecular methods like the small-subunit ribosomal gene.

The Tree of Life has been significantly expanded by genome sequencing. However, there is still much biodiversity to be discovered. This is particularly true for microorganisms that are difficult to cultivate and are often only present in a single specimen5. Recent analysis of all genomes produced an unfinished draft of a Tree of Life. This includes a large number of bacteria, archaea and other organisms that have not yet been isolated or their diversity is not fully understood6.

The expanded Tree of Life is particularly useful for assessing the biodiversity of an area, assisting to determine if certain habitats require special protection. The information is useful in a variety of ways, such as identifying new drugs, combating diseases and improving the quality of crops. It is also beneficial in conservation efforts. It can help biologists identify the areas that are most likely to contain cryptic species with important metabolic functions that could be vulnerable to anthropogenic change. Although funds to safeguard biodiversity are vital, ultimately the best way to protect the world's biodiversity is for more people living in developing countries to be equipped with the knowledge to act locally to promote conservation from within.

Phylogeny

A phylogeny, also known as an evolutionary tree, reveals the connections between groups of organisms. By using molecular information, morphological similarities and differences or ontogeny (the process of the development of an organism), scientists can build an phylogenetic tree that demonstrates the evolutionary relationships between taxonomic groups. Phylogeny is essential in understanding evolution, biodiversity and genetics.

A basic phylogenetic Tree (see Figure PageIndex 10 Identifies the relationships between organisms with similar characteristics and have evolved from an ancestor that shared traits. These shared traits may be analogous or homologous. Homologous characteristics are identical in terms of their evolutionary paths. Analogous traits might appear similar but they don't share the same origins. Scientists group similar traits together into a grouping known as a the clade. For instance, all of the organisms that make up a clade share the trait of having amniotic eggs.  에볼루션 바카라  evolved from a common ancestor who had these eggs. A phylogenetic tree is then constructed by connecting clades to identify the species who are the closest to each other.

To create a more thorough and accurate phylogenetic tree scientists rely on molecular information from DNA or RNA to establish the relationships between organisms. This information is more precise and provides evidence of the evolution of an organism. The analysis of molecular data can help researchers determine the number of species who share a common ancestor and to estimate their evolutionary age.

The phylogenetic relationship can be affected by a variety of factors, including the phenomenon of phenotypicplasticity. This is a type of behavior that changes as a result of particular environmental conditions. This can cause a particular trait to appear more similar in one species than other species, which can obscure the phylogenetic signal. This issue can be cured by using cladistics, which is a an amalgamation of homologous and analogous traits in the tree.

Additionally, phylogenetics can aid in predicting the duration and rate of speciation. This information can aid conservation biologists to make decisions about which species to protect from the threat of extinction. In the end, it is the preservation of phylogenetic diversity that will result in an ecosystem that is complete and balanced.

Evolutionary Theory

The central theme of evolution is that organisms acquire various characteristics over time due to their interactions with their surroundings. A variety of theories about evolution have been developed by a variety of scientists such as the Islamic naturalist Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) who believed that an organism would evolve slowly according to its needs, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) who conceived modern hierarchical taxonomy, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829) who suggested that use or disuse of traits cause changes that could be passed on to the offspring.

In the 1930s and 1940s, concepts from various fields, including natural selection, genetics & particulate inheritance, were brought together to form a modern evolutionary theory. This defines how evolution is triggered by the variation in genes within the population and how these variants alter over time due to natural selection. This model, which incorporates genetic drift, mutations, gene flow and sexual selection can be mathematically described.

Recent developments in the field of evolutionary developmental biology have demonstrated that variations can be introduced into a species through mutation, genetic drift and reshuffling genes during sexual reproduction, as well as through migration between populations. These processes, along with others, such as directionally-selected selection and erosion of genes (changes to the frequency of genotypes over time) can lead to evolution. Evolution is defined by changes in the genome over time as well as changes in phenotype (the expression of genotypes in an individual).

Incorporating evolutionary thinking into all aspects of biology education could increase student understanding of the concepts of phylogeny and evolutionary. In a recent study conducted by Grunspan and co. It was demonstrated that teaching students about the evidence for evolution increased their acceptance of evolution during an undergraduate biology course. To find out more about how to teach about evolution, please read The Evolutionary Potential of All Areas of Biology and Thinking Evolutionarily: A Framework for Infusing Evolution into Life Sciences Education.

Evolution in Action

Traditionally, scientists have studied evolution through studying fossils, comparing species and observing living organisms. However, evolution isn't something that happened in the past, it's an ongoing process that is taking place today. Bacteria evolve and resist antibiotics, viruses re-invent themselves and elude new medications, and animals adapt their behavior to a changing planet. The changes that occur are often apparent.

It wasn't until the 1980s that biologists began realize that natural selection was also in play. The reason is that different traits have different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness) and can be passed from one generation to the next.

In the past, if an allele - the genetic sequence that determines colour - appeared in a population of organisms that interbred, it might become more common than other allele. Over time, this would mean that the number of moths sporting black pigmentation in a population may increase. The same is true for many other characteristics--including morphology and behavior--that vary among populations of organisms.

It is easier to see evolutionary change when an organism, like bacteria, has a rapid generation turnover. Since 1988, Richard Lenski, a biologist, has studied twelve populations of E.coli that descend from a single strain. Samples from each population were taken regularly and more than 500.000 generations of E.coli have passed.

Lenski's work has shown that mutations can alter the rate of change and the efficiency at which a population reproduces. It also shows evolution takes time, something that is hard for some to accept.

Another example of microevolution is that mosquito genes that confer resistance to pesticides show up more often in areas where insecticides are used. This is because the use of pesticides creates a pressure that favors individuals with resistant genotypes.

The rapidity of evolution has led to an increasing awareness of its significance particularly in a world which is largely shaped by human activities. This includes climate change, pollution, and habitat loss that hinders many species from adapting. Understanding the evolution process can help us make smarter choices about the future of our planet as well as the life of its inhabitants.